Class - BBA ll nd yr.

Subject - Business Law

Subject type - Minor ll

By AP N Jaiswal

Key words for the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) include RBI, Authorised Person, Current Account, Capital Account, FDI/ODI, and Enforcement Directorate (ED), focusing on regulating cross-border financial flows, promoting trade, and facilitating the foreign exchange market in India

·  RBI (Reserve Bank of India):

·  Authorised Person

·  Foreign Exchange/Security

·  Current Account Transaction

·  Capital Account Transaction

·  FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) & ODI (Overseas Direct Investment)

Class - BBA ll nd yr.

Subject - Business Law

Subject type - Minor ll

By AP N Jaiswal

National consumer duties involve

being aware and informed, thinking independently, demanding quality and proper documentation (like bills), using products correctly, speaking out against issues, complaining fairly, being ethical (avoiding fraud, black marketing), and supporting responsible businesses and sustainable consumption, all to exercise rights effectively under consumer protection laws.

Key Consumer Duties (Responsibilities)

* Be aware & Informed

* Think Independently

* Qualty conscious

* Follow instruction

* Speak out & complain

* Be Ethical

* Join group

offenses and penalties

The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (CPA 2019) penalizes offenses like false advertising, selling adulterated/spurious goods, and non-compliance with Central Authority (CCPA) orders, with penalties ranging from fines (up to ₹50 Lakhs) and imprisonment (up to life) for severe cases, especially involving harm or death, holding manufacturers, endorsers, and distributors accountable for violations

Key Offences & Penalties

1. False/Misleading Advertisements (Section 89)

• First Offence
• Subsequent Offence

2. Adulterated Products (Section 90)

• No Injury
• Injury (not grievous)
• Grievous Hurt
• Death

3. Spurious Goods (Section 91)

4. Non-Compliance with CCPA Directions (Section 88)

5. Non-Compliance with Consumer Forum Orders 

6. Frivolous Complaints

• Complainant filing bogus complaints

Class : B.com 1 year( CA)

Subject : Business Mathematics minor 1

Faculty's name: Dr. Asmita Jain

Topic : Compound interest 

A sum of money amounts to Rs.24310 in 2 years at 1o% p.a. if interest payable half yearly. Find the sum.

Given:

• Amount (A) = ₹ 24310

• Rate of interest (r) = 10 /2= 5% I =5/100=.05

• Time (n) = 2 years ×2 = 4 times

Formula:

P = AL [log A - n x log (1 + i)]

P = AL [log 24310 – 4 x log 1.05]

= AL [4.3858-4 × 0.0212]

= AL [4.3858-.0848]

= AL 4.301

P = 20000. रुपये

On 7 Jan 2026 1:27 pm, asmita jain <asmi.jain1@yahoo.com> wrote:

Class : B.com 1 year( CA)
Subject : Business Mathematics
Faculty's name: Dr. Asmita Jain
Topic : Compound interest

sum of money amounts to Rs.14680 in 3 years @5.5 % p.a. compound interest
Given:
• Amount (A) = ₹14,680
• Rate of interest (r) = 5.5% p.a. = 0.055
• Time (n) = 3 years
• Interest = Compound Interest (compounded annually)
Formula:
Principal = AL [ log Amount - n (log 1 + i)]
P = Al [log 14680 - 3 (log 1.055)
P= Al [4.1668 - 3 × 0.0212]
P= Al 3.1761
P= 1500

Videoconferencing and Teleconferencing:

This mode of communication begins in teleconferencing. A number of telephones are simultaneously connected to one another. Teleconferencing is a facility enabling people in different parts of the world to have an audio meeting (as opposed to dialogue), saving on transit time and hotel stay. It helps in thrashing out a variety of opinions on a subject to reach a faster conclusion.

A further advance in this technology is computer teleconferencing. The participants can react to the messages and inputs for the others' knowledge. They may not even be present simultaneously for the computer teleconference but add their contribution at their convenience.

Videoconferencing, however, is the closest it gets to seeing and hearing one another without being present together. The technologies used in a videoconference are: monitor screen, camera, microphone, codec (compressor-decompress or), equipment control pad at each location, and internet connectivity. With the passage of time, this is becoming more popular and easier to use. You often see it in TV interviews.

You often see it in TV interviews. For a videoconference, the participants get into a special room at their respective locations, equipped with the gadgetry. They can see, hear, speak to others and show exhibits without physical presence together.

The entire proceedings can be recorded on video tapes. As someone has jocularly put it, except for the snacks and coffee, everything else is transmissible in a videoconference. At present, the privilege of the richer business houses, videoconferences are set to gain wider popularity.

Video classrooms are another possibility in this field, where an expert faculty member may teach a number of classes in a number of towns simultaneously and answer the participants' queries.

Videoconferencing, however, is the closest it gets to seeing and hearing one another without being present together. The technologies used in a videoconference are: monitor screen, camera, microphone, codec (compressor-decompress or), equipment control pad at each location, and internet connectivity. With the passage of time, this is becoming more popular and easier to use. You often see it in TV interviews.

You often see it in TV interviews. For a videoconference, the participants get into a special room at their respective locations, equipped with the gadgetry. They can see, hear, speak to others and show exhibits without physical presence together.

Advantages of video conferencing:

1. No time constraint: Video conferencing can be conducted at any time of the day.

Time differences between countries do not matter when people use this method of communication because they do not actually need to travel to attend meetings.

2. Dramatic travel saving: Not only is video conferencing a direct replacement for many in-person business trip, but also there is virtually no cost for people to be involved in a virtual meeting, you can easily bring the right them together.

3. Easy communication: People can use video conferencing to communicate with anyone with HD video and other collaboration tools such as whiteboard, text exchange, file sharing, media sharing, screen sharing, remote control, electronic voting, conference recording etc.

4. Increased productivity: By eliminating time and district barriers, meetings can be hold anytime, anywhere with anyone. In this way, meetings are shorter and more effective. And also with the rich collaboration tools, decisions can be made faster.

Disadvantages of video conferencing:

1. Lack of personal interaction: Some meetings require a personal touch to be successful. Video conferencing can be less personal than meeting face to face, and it can be possible to miss out on vital body language when you're struggling with a pixilated image or stuttering video.

2. Technical problems: The major disadvantages are the technical difficulties associated with smooth transmissions that could result from software, hardware or network failure. Remote connections are sometimes known to be hampered by environmental changes. On some occasions, the absence of technical support personnel creates difficulty for participants who are unfamiliar with the videoconferencing technological concepts.

3. International time zones: One of the very real disadvantages of using video conferencing is that if you communicate regularly with people in other countries you will be available at different times to them. Unfortunately without the skills of a time lord there's not really a practical way to overcome this.

4. High cost of setup: Setting up video conferencing in an office can be a bit expensive for small-sized companies. Simple features can fit into the budget, but if advanced features are required, and then a substantial amount of expenditure must be done. 

Class - B.com 1st "B" section

Subject- Cost Accounting major 2

Compiled by - Dr. Priyanka Malvi 

Unit 5th

Contract costing

1.Meaning 

2. Types of Contracts

3. Terminology used

4. Formate of contract costing 

What is a contact Account? What important point should be born in mind in its preparation?

(Contract Account)

Contractors engaged in the construction of buildings, roads, bridges, and dams fall under the category of contractors. The method of cost accounting adopted by them is known as contract costing. The objective of preparing contract accounts is to ascertain the profit or loss incurred on completed or incomplete contracts during a specific period.

If a contract is completed within a short period, its cost and profit or loss are determined on completion. In the case of long-term contracts, the cost and profit or loss are ascertained at each stage of completion. Sub-contracts are generally small-scale works carried out at specific locations, whereas contracts are large-scale and executed at various locations. Every contract is undertaken for a fixed amount, known as the contract price. The party who awards the contract is called the contractee, and the person who executes the contract is called the contractor.

Method of Maintaining Contract Accounts

For maintaining proper records of various contracts, the contractor keeps a Contract Ledger, in which a separate account is opened for each contract. Each contract is allotted a serial number so that they can be distinguished from one another.

Contract Account

A contract account has two sides—Debit and Credit—and both sides contain columns for date, particulars, and amount.

On the debit side, the following items are recorded: materials, labour, plant and tools, and other direct expenses. Outstanding expenses are also shown on this side.

On the credit side, returned materials, returned plant, sale of materials and plant, materials and plant destroyed or stolen, and the value of materials and plant remaining at the site are recorded.

The various items included in a contract account are as follows:

Materials

A contractor may purchase materials directly or keep them in stores and issue them to contracts as required. When several contracts are running simultaneously, surplus materials from one contract may be transferred to another. All such materials are shown on the debit side of the contract account. Materials returned are recorded on the credit side. Any profit or loss on the sale of materials is transferred to the Profit and Loss Account. At the end of the year, the value of materials remaining is shown on the credit side.

Labour or Wages

All remuneration paid for work done on the contract is treated as direct labour and is recorded on the debit side of the contract account. Outstanding wages are also shown on the debit side.

Plant and Machinery

Plant or machinery purchased specifically for a particular contract is shown on the debit side of the contract account. If plant is returned, sold, or stolen, it is shown on the credit side. Any profit or loss on the sale of plant is transferred to the Profit and Loss Account. In the case of an incomplete contract, the depreciated value of plant at the end of the year is shown on the credit side.

Other Direct Expenses

Other direct expenses related to the contract are shown on the debit side of the contract account. Outstanding expenses are also recorded on the debit side.

Apportionment of Indirect Expenses

Certain expenses are not incurred for a specific contract but are common in nature. Such expenses are apportioned among contracts on a suitable percentage basis.

Sub-contract Cost

For specialized work, the contractor may assign the work to other contractors for a fixed price. The cost of work done by sub-contractors is treated as a direct expense of the contract and is shown on the debit side of the contract account.

Cost of Extra Work Done

Whenever additional work beyond the original contract is carried out at the request of the contractee, the expenditure incurred on such work is recorded on the debit side. Separate additional payment is received for this extra work.

ठेका खाता

(Contract Account)

भवन, सड़क, पुल एवं बाँध के निर्माता ठेकेदार की श्रेणी में आते हैं। इनके द्वारा लागत लेखांकन की जो पद्धति अपनायी जाती है, उसे ठेका लागत कहते हैं। ठेका लेखे तैयार करने का उद्देश्य पूर्ण या अपूर्ण ठेकों पर एक निश्चित अवधि में होने वाले लाभ एवं हानि को ज्ञात करना होता है। यदि ठेका कार्य अल्पकाल में पूर्ण होता है, तो उसके पूर्ण होने पर तथा दीर्घकाल में पूर्ण होने पर प्रत्येक अवस्था में उसकी लागत एवं लाभ-हानि को ज्ञात किया जाता है। उपकार्य प्रायः छोटे स्तर का कार्य होता है तथा विशिष्ट स्थानों पर सम्पन्न किया जाता है। ठेका बड़े पैमाने पर होता है तथा विभिन्न स्थानों पर किया जाता है। कोई भी ठेका एक निश्चित राशि के लिए लिया जाता है, जिसे 'ठेका मूल्य' कहते हैं। ठेका देने वाले को "ठेकादाता' (Contractee) एवं ठेका कार्य करने वाले व्यक्ति को ठेकेदार (Contractor) कहते हैं।

ठेका खाता को रखने की विधि

विभिन्न ठेकों का उचित लेखा रखने के लिए ठेकेदार एक ठेका खाता बही (Contract ledger) रखता है, जिसमें प्रत्येक ठेके के लिए पृथक् पृथक् खाता खोल दिया जाता है। प्रत्येक ठेके को क्रमिक संख्या प्रदान की जाती है, जिससे उनमें भिन्नता रखी जा सके।

ठेका खाता (Contract Account)

इसमें नामे क्जमा दो पक्ष होते हैं और दोनों तरफ दिनांक, विवरण एवं राशि के खाने होते हैं। नामे पक्ष (Debit side) की ओर सामग्री, श्रम, प्लान्ट व औजार एवं अन्य अप्रत्यक्ष व्यय

सम्मिलित किए जाते हैं। अदत्त व्ययों को भी इसी पक्ष में रखते हैं। जमा पक्ष में लौटाया गया माल, लौटाया गया प्लान्ट, सामग्री व प्लान्ट की बिक्री, नष्ट व चोरी हई सामग्री एवं प्लान्ट व शेष सामग्री व प्लान्ट को दिखाया जाता है। ठेके खाते में आने वाली विभिन्न मर्दे निम्न प्रकार से हैं-

1. सामग्री (Materials)- ठेकेदार सामग्री को प्रत्यक्ष रूप से क्रय कर सकता है या उसे संग्रहालय में रखकर आवश्यकता के समय ठेके पर निर्गमित कर सकता है। जब अनेक ठेके साथ-साथ चलते हैं तो एक ठेके पर बची हई सामग्री दूसरे ठेके पर भेज दी जाती है। यह समस्त सामग्री ठेके खाते में नामे पक्ष की ओर ही दिखायी जाती है। जो सामग्री वापस की जाती है, उसका लेखा ठेका खाते में जमा पक्ष की ओर करते हैं। सामग्री के बेचने पर लाभ-हानि को लाभ-हानि खाते में हस्तान्तरित कर देते हैं। वर्ष के अन्त में शेष सामग्री को जमा पक्ष की ओर दिखाते हैं।

2. श्रम या मजदूरी (Labour or Wages)- समस्त पारिश्रमिक जो ठेके का कार्य पर दिया जाता है, प्रत्यक्ष श्रम होता है और उसे ठेके खाते में नामे पक्ष की ओर ही लिखते हैं। अदत्त मजदूरी को भी नामे पक्ष की ओर दिखाते हैं।

3. प्लान्ट एवं मशीनरी (Plant and Machinery)- जो प्लान्ट या मशीनरी विशेष रूप से किसी ठेके के लिए ही क्रय की गई हो, उसे ठेके खाते में नामे पक्ष की ओर दिखाते हैं। यदि प्लान्ट वापिस किया गया हो या बेचा गया हो या चोरी हो गया हो तो उसे जमा पक्ष की ओर दिखाते हैं। प्लान्ट के बेचने से यदि लाभ या हानि हो तो उसे लाभ-हानि खाते में ले जाते हैं। अपूर्ण ठेके पर वर्ष के अन्त में प्लान्ट का हासित मूल्य ज्ञात करके ही उसे जमा पक्ष की ओर दिखाते हैं।

4. अन्य प्रत्यक्ष व्यय (Other Direct Expenses)- ठेके से सम्बन्धित अन्य प्रत्यक्ष व्ययों को ठेके खाते में नामे पक्ष की ओर ही दिखाते हैं। यदि व्यय अदत्त हों तो उसे भी नामे पक्ष की ओर ही दिखाते हैं।

5. अप्रत्यक्ष व्यय का अनुपात (Proportion of Indirect Expenses)- कुछ व्यय विशेष ठेके पर न होकर सामूहिक रूप से किये जाते हैं। इन व्ययों को किसी निश्चित प्रतिशत के आधार पर विभाजित किया जाता है।

6. उप-ठेकों की लागत (Sub-contract Cost)- ठेकेदार विशिष्ट कार्यों के लिए अन्य ठेकेदारों को एक निश्चित मूल्य दे देता है और उप-ठेकेदार द्वारा किए गए कार्यों की लागत को ठेके का प्रत्यक्ष व्यय माना जाता है। उप-ठेकों की लागत को ठेके के नामे पक्ष में दिखाते हैं।

7. अतिरिक्त कार्यों की लागत (Cost of Extra Work Done)- जब कभी ठेका देने वाला मूल ठेके के अतिरिक्त अन्य कार्य करता है, तो इस पर किए गए व्यय को नामे पक्ष में लिखते हैं। इस कार्य के लिए अतिरिक्त भुगतान करना होता है।

Class : B.Com 3 year
Subject : Management Accounting
Faculty's name : Dr. Asmita Jain
Topic : quality of a good report

A report-is prepared by putting in labour by the executives. The usefulness of the report will depend upon its quality and the way in which it has been communicated. A report should be prepared in a way it serves the purpose and presented at a time when it is needed. Good reporting is thus essential for effective communication. A good report should have the following requisites-

1. Simplicity : The report should be presented in a simple, unambiguous and clear language. The language should be non-technical. If the report is loaded with technical terminology, it will reduce its utility because the reader may be unfamiliar with that language. The reader should be able to understand the report without any difficulty. The report should also be readable. The figures should be rounded off so as to make them easily understandable. If possible, charts, diagrams or graphs should be used for presenting information.

2. Consistency: There should be a consistency in the preparation of reports. The comparability of reports will be possible only if they are consistent. For consistency, the reports should be prepared from the same type of information and statistical data. This will be possible if same accounting principles and concepts are used for collecting, classifying, tabulating and presenting of information. Consistency in reporting enhances their utility.

3. Good form and content: The following points be considered in preparing a report:

(a) The report must contain the date of its preparation and date of submission.

(b) The content of the report should be in a logical sequence.

(c) The report should be given a proper title, headings, sub-headings and paragraph divisions. The title will explain the purpose for which the report has been prepared, the title also enables to point out the persons who need the report. A production report may be titled as 'Production Report for the month of April 1992'. The title explains the purpose and period of preparing the report.

(d) The contents of a report must serve the purpose for which it has been prepared. Separate reports be prepared for different subjects. Various aspects of the subject should be properly conveyed.

(e) The reports should, contain facts and not opinions. The opinion may come, if essential, as a sequel to certain facts and not otherwise.

(f) If the report is prepared in response to a request or letter, then it should bear reference number of such request or letter.

(g) If statistical figures are to be given in the report then only significant figures and totals should be made a part of it and other detailed figures should be given in appendix.

4. Comparability: The reporting system is meant to help management in taking correct decision and improving the operational efficiency of the organisation. This objective will better be achieved if reports give comparative information.

एक रिपोर्ट अधिकारियों के परिश्रम से तैयार की जाती है। रिपोर्ट की उपयोगिता उसकी गुणवत्ता और उसे प्रस्तुत करने के तरीके पर निर्भर करती है। रिपोर्ट को इस प्रकार तैयार किया जाना चाहिए कि वह उद्देश्य की पूर्ति करे और उसे उस समय प्रस्तुत किया जाए जब उसकी आवश्यकता हो। इसलिए प्रभावी संचार के लिए अच्छी रिपोर्टिंग आवश्यक है। एक अच्छी रिपोर्ट में निम्नलिखित आवश्यक तत्व होने चाहिए-

1. सरलता: रिपोर्ट को सरल, स्पष्ट और सरल भाषा में प्रस्तुत किया जाना चाहिए। भाषा तकनीकी नहीं होनी चाहिए। यदि रिपोर्ट में तकनीकी शब्दावली का अत्यधिक उपयोग किया गया है, तो इससे इसकी उपयोगिता कम हो जाएगी क्योंकि पाठक उस भाषा से अपरिचित हो सकता है।रिपोर्ट को समझने में कोई कठिनाई नहीं होनी चाहिए। रिपोर्ट पठनीय होनी चाहिए। आंकड़ों को सरल भाषा में प्रस्तुत किया जाना चाहिए ताकि वे आसानी से समझ में आ सकें। संभव हो तो, जानकारी प्रस्तुत करने के लिए चार्ट, आरेख या ग्राफ का उपयोग किया जाना चाहिए।

2. निरंतरता: तैयारी के तरीके में निरंतरता होनी चाहिए।

रिपोर्टों की तुलना तभी संभव है जब वे सुसंगत हों। सुसंगतता के लिए, रिपोर्टों को एक ही प्रकार की जानकारी और सांख्यिकीय आंकड़ों से तैयार किया जाना चाहिए। यह तभी संभव होगा जब जानकारी एकत्र करने, वर्गीकृत करने, सारणीबद्ध करने और प्रस्तुत करने के लिए समान लेखांकन सिद्धांतों और अवधारणाओं का उपयोग किया जाए। रिपोर्टिंग में सुसंगतता उनकी उपयोगिता को बढ़ाती है।

3. अच्छा स्वरूप और विषयवस्तु: रिपोर्ट तैयार करते समय निम्नलिखित बिंदुओं पर विचार किया जाना चाहिए:

(क) रिपोर्ट में इसकी तैयारी की तिथि और प्रस्तुत करने की तिथि अंकित होनी चाहिए।

(ख) रिपोर्ट की विषयवस्तु तार्किक क्रम में होनी चाहिए।

(ग) रिपोर्ट को उचित शीर्षक, शीर्ष-शीर्षक, उप-शीर्षक और अनुच्छेद विभाजन दिए जाने चाहिए। शीर्षक से रिपोर्ट तैयार करने का उद्देश्य स्पष्ट होता है और रिपोर्ट की आवश्यकता वाले व्यक्तियों की पहचान भी हो जाती है। उत्पादन रिपोर्ट का शीर्षक 'अप्रैल 1992 माह की उत्पादन रिपोर्ट' हो सकता है। शीर्षक से रिपोर्ट तैयार करने का उद्देश्य और अवधि स्पष्ट हो जाती है।

(घ) रिपोर्ट की विषयवस्तु उस उद्देश्य की पूर्ति करनी चाहिए जिसके लिए इसे तैयार किया गया है। विभिन्न विषयों के लिए अलग-अलग रिपोर्ट तैयार की जानी चाहिए। विषय के विभिन्न पहलुओं को उचित रूप से संप्रेषित किया जाना चाहिए।

(ई) रिपोर्टों में तथ्य होने चाहिए, राय नहीं। राय तभी दी जा सकती है, जब वह आवश्यक हो, कुछ तथ्यों के परिणाम स्वरूप, अन्यथा नहीं।

(f) यदि रिपोर्ट किसी अनुरोध या पत्र के उत्तर में तैयार की जाती है, तो उस पर ऐसे अनुरोध या पत्र का संदर्भ क्रमांक अंकित होना चाहिए।

(g) यदि रिपोर्ट में सांख्यिकीय आंकड़े दिए जाने हैं तो केवल महत्वपूर्ण आंकड़े और योगफल ही इसका हिस्सा बनाए जाने चाहिए और अन्य विस्तृत आंकड़े परिशिष्ट में दिए जाने चाहिए।

4. तुलनीयता: रिपोर्टिंग प्रणाली का उद्देश्य सहायता प्रदान करना है।

प्रबंधन को सही निर्णय लेने और संगठन की परिचालन दक्षता में सुधार करने में सहायता मिलती है। तुलनात्मक जानकारी देने वाली रिपोर्टों से इस उद्देश्य को बेहतर ढंग से प्राप्त किया जा सकता है।

तुलनात्मक जानकारी पिछले अवधियों, वर्तमान मानकों या बजट से संबंधित हो सकती है। यह जानकारी विचलन या भिन्नता का पता लगाने में सहायक होती है।

Class - BBA ll nd yr.

Subject - Business Law

Subject type - Minor ll

By AP N Jaiswal

THE CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT, 2019
NO. 35 OF 2019
[9th August, 2019.]
An Act to provide for protection of the interests of consumers and for the said
purpose, to establish authorities for timely and effective administration and
settlement of consumers' disputes and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.

Key Provisions

* Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA)

* E-Commerce & Direct Selling

* Product Liability

* Unfair Contracts & Practices

* Mediation & ADR

* E-Filing

* Consumer Rights

* Consumer Protection Councils

Minor I 

Unit 6 

Topic- Compound Interest practical's 

Trapti Bala Jakhetiya 

Business mathematics 

Minor I 

Unit 6 

Topic- Compound Interest practical's

Professor Priti Upadhyaya 
Foreign exchange management actForeign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) of 1999 is an Indian law regulating foreign exchange transactions to facilitate external trade, payments, and the orderly development of India's foreign exchange market, replacing the stricter FERA by focusing on liberalization while preventing illicit activities like money laundering and ensuring compliance with international norms. It covers rules for residents, NRIs, FDI, investments, and penalties, with enforcement by the Directorate of Enforcement (ED). 

Key Objectives

• Facilitate Trade & Payments: Streamline foreign currency flows for international business.
• • Market Development: Promote orderly growth of the forex market in India.
  • Investment Promotion: Provide a framework for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI).
  • Currency Stability: Maintain exchange rate stability and manage foreign exchange reserves.
  • Prevent Illicit Activities: Combat money laundering and illegal foreign exchange dealings. 

. Professor Priti Upadhyaya 

Foreign exchange management act

Major 

Asst.prof. Priti Upadhyay 

Topic -  foreign exchange management act 2000

The FEMA ACT 1999 is a law to replace the draconian FERA ACT 1973. The FERA Act was enacted in 1973 in the backdrop of acute shortage of foreign exchange in the country, was subsequently reviewed in 1993. Several amendments were enacted as part of the ongoing process of economic liberalisation relating to the foreign investments and foreign trade for closer interaction with world economy. FEMA was enacted to replace FERA. 

*B.Com. First Year*

*Financial Accounting*

*Sunil Kumar Gupta*

*Non-Trading Organizations and Professionals*

Organizations are of two types:

Trading organizations

and Non-trading organizations

Trading organizations refer to those organizations whose main objective is to earn profit.

Whereas non-trading organizations refer to those organizations whose main objective is not to earn profit but to serve society.

Similarly, professionals refer to individuals who earn money through mental activities based on their specialized knowledge, training, qualifications, and experience.

*Why do non-trading organizations need to maintain accounts?*

It is true that the main objective of non-trading organizations is not to earn profit.

They do not engage in any kind of buying or selling.

Instead, they perform social service.

Their transactions are usually in cash.

However, they need to maintain accounts for the following reasons:

*For information on membership fees received*

The main source of income for non-trading organizations is the membership fees received from their members, and every member wants to know how much total membership fees the organization has received.

*For information on donations*

Another important source of income for non-trading organizations is the donations received, and the donor wants to know how much total donation the organization has received and how the donation given by them has been utilized.

*For information on receipts and payments*

Non-trading organizations need to know how much they have received from various sources and how much they have paid to various sources.

*For information on income and expenditure*

Non-trading organizations have members who want to know how much income and expenditure the organization has incurred during a specific period.

*For information on assets and liabilities*

Non-trading organizations need to know how many assets and liabilities they have.

*बी.काम. प्रथम वर्ष* 

       *वित्तीय लेखांकन*  

        *सुनिल कुमार गुप्ता* 

*गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाएं एवं पेशेवर व्यक्ति*

 संस्थाएं दो प्रकार की होती है 

व्यापारिक संस्थाएं 

एवं गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाएं

 व्यापारिक संस्थाओं से आशय ऐसी संस्थाओं से है जिनका मुख्य उद्देश्य लाभ कमाना होता है

 जबकि गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाओं से आशय ऐसी संस्थाओं से है जिनका मुख्य उद्देश्य से लाभ कमाना नहीं अपितु समाज की सेवा करना होता है। 

 इसी प्रकार पेशेवर व्यक्तियों से आशय ऐसे व्यक्तियों से हैं जो अपने विशेष ज्ञान, प्रशिक्षण ,योग्यता  एंव अनुभव के आधार पर मानसिक क्रियाओं द्वारा धनोपाजर्न करते हैं

 *गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाओं को हिसाब किताब रखने की आवश्यकता क्यों होती है*

 यह सच है की गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाओं का मुख्य उद्देश्य लाभ कमाना नहीं होता

 यह किसी भी प्रकार का क्रय विक्रय नहीं करती है

 अपितु समाज सेवा का कार्य करती है

 इनके लेनदेन प्राय: नगद ही होते हैं 

किंतु निम्नलिखित कारणों  से इन्हें हिसाब किताब रखने की आवश्यकता होती है

 *प्राप्त सदस्यता शुल्क की जानकारी हेतु*

 गैर व्यापारिक संस्थानों की आय का मुख्य स्रोत उनके सदस्यों से प्राप्त सदस्यता शुल्क होता है और प्रत्येक सदस्य यह जानना चाहता है की संस्था को कुल सदस्यता शुल्क कितना प्राप्त हुआ हैं 

 *दान की जानकारी हेतु*

 गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाओं की आय का दूसरा महत्वपूर्ण स्रोत प्राप्त दान होता है,और दान दाता यह जानना चाहता है कि संस्था को कुल कितना दान  प्राप्त हुआ,और उसके द्वारा दिए गए दान का उपयोग कैसे किया गया

*प्राप्ति भुगतान की जानकारी*

 गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाओं को यह जानना आवश्यक है कि उनको किन-किन स्रोतों से कितनी प्राप्तियां हुई है और उन्होंने किन-किन स्रोतों पर कितना-कितना भुगतान किया है

 *आय एवं व्यय की जानकारी हेतु*

गैर व्यापारिक संस्थानों में सदस्य होते हैं जो यह जानना चाहते हैं कि एक निश्चित समय अवधि में संस्था को कितनी आय एवं कितने व्यय हुए हैं

*संपत्ति एवं दायित्व की जानकारी हेतु*

 गैर व्यापारिक संस्थाओं को इस बात की जानकारी प्राप्त करना आवश्यक है कि उनके पास कितनी संपत्तियों और कितने दायित्व हैं

Class : B.Com 3 year
Subject : Management Accounting
Faculty's name : Dr. Asmita Jain


(b) Report to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) - Chief Executive Officers (Director/General Manager) have the primary responsibility for implementing a company's policies and plans. These reports should analyze performance and explain any deviations. Reports to the Chief Executive Officer should include sales and production reports, which should include information on budgeted sales and production, as well as actual sales and production, and an analysis of deviations and the causes of deviations.

(c) Report to Sales Manager - Sales managers are responsible for achieving predetermined sales targets. Their performance is measured based on total sales volume and distribution expenses. Therefore, reports to the sales manager should include actual and budgeted units, sales revenue, and sales expenses. These reports can be weekly, monthly, or quarterly. When there are different sales managers for different departments, they should be given separate reports.

(d) Report to Production Managers - Production managers are responsible for the cost and quantity of production. The report to the production manager should include actual costs and budgeted costs. Variances arising from these should also be explained. The impact of these variances on factory costs and company profits should also be explained. Necessary action should be taken to address these deviations. The production manager is usually provided with a monthly production cost statement, monthly machine utilization statement, overhead cost statement, and monthly production statement.

II. External Reports - Reports prepared for the information of individuals outside the business (creditors) are called external reports. These reports are very brief but provide important information. They include the following reports:

First, reports to shareholders (profit and loss accounts, balance sheet, etc.). Second, reports to the stock exchange. Third, tax-related reports such as sales tax returns, income tax returns, duty tax returns, etc., and finally, reports to banks and creditors.

(c) Reports on the basis of facts

The following reports come under this:

1. Operating Reports - The primary purpose of these reports is to present to managers facts and information related to business operations that significantly impact business planning and policies. These reports are prepared only after thorough research. Their preparation requires considerable labor and expense and requires analytical expertise.

2. Financial reports - These reports deal with the financial position of the business. Financial reports reveal the extent to which managers have fulfilled their responsibilities towards shareholders. Financial and operating reports, though distinct, are interrelated. Financial reports reflect the financial position of the business, while operating reports shed light on the business's income. There are two types of financial reports - static financial reports and dynamic financial reports.

(d) Reports on the basis of activity

There are two types of activity reports-
1. Personal Activity Report - These reports are limited to activities performed under the direction of a specific responsible officer. For example, suppose the entire sales area is divided into two parts, and officers A and B are appointed for both parts, respectively. The report related to A's area would be called a personal activity report, and similarly for B's area.
2. Joint Activity Report - These reports relate to the activities of collectively responsible officers. For example, if a report is prepared analyzing the factory, office, and distribution costs or profit and loss of a product sold in the territories of A and B, this report would be called a joint activity report.

(ब) प्रधान कार्यकारी अधिकारी को प्रतिवेदन (Report to main functioning authority)- किसी भी कम्पनी की नीतियों एवं योजनाओं को क्रियान्वित करने की मुख्य जिम्मेदारी प्रधान कार्यकारी अधिकारियों (संचालक/सामान्य प्रबन्धक) की होती है। इन प्रतिवेदनों में कार्य निष्पादनों का विश्लेषण होना चाहिये तथा विचलनों (Variations) की स्थिति में उनका स्पष्टीकरण किया जाना चाहिये। प्रधान कार्यकारी अधिकारी को भेजे जाने वाले प्रतिवेदनों में विक्रय तथा उत्पादन से सम्बन्धित प्रतिवेदन होते हैं जिनमें बजटीय विक्रय तथा उत्पादक के साथ-साथ वास्तविक विक्रय व उत्पादन के सम्बन्ध में सूचनाएँ तथा विचलन व विचलनों के कारणों का विश्लेषण दिया हुआ होना चाहिये।

(स) विक्रय प्रबन्धक को प्रतिवेदन (Report to sales manager)- पूर्व-निर्धारित विक्रय-लक्ष्यों को प्राप्त करने का दायित्व विक्रय प्रबन्धकों का होता है। इनके निष्पादन का माप कुल विक्रय की मात्रा और वितरण व्ययों के आधार पर किया जाता है। अतः विक्रय प्रबन्धक को दिये जाने वाले प्रतिवेदन में वास्तविक तथा बजटीय इकाइयाँ, विक्रय आय तथा विक्रय व्ययों का समावेश होना चाहिये। ये प्रतिवेदन, साप्ताहिक, मासिक अथवा त्रैमासिक हो सकते हैं। जब अलग-अलग विभाग के लिये अलग-अलग विक्रय प्रबन्धक होते हैं, तो उन्हें अलग-अलग प्रतिवेदन दिया जाना चाहिये।

(द) उत्पादन प्रबन्धकों को प्रतिवेदन (Report to production managers)- उत्पादन प्रबन्धक उत्पादन की लागत तथा मात्रा के लिये उत्तरदायी होते हैं। उत्पादन प्रबन्धक को दिये जाने वाले प्रतिवेदन में वास्तविक लागतों एवं बजटीय लागतों का समावेश होना चाहिये। इनमें उत्पन्न विचरणों का भी स्पष्टीकरण होना आवश्यक है। इन विचरणों का कारखाना लागतों तथा कम्पनी के लाभ पर जो प्रभाव पड़ता है उसका भी स्पष्टीकरण होना चाहिये। विचलनों के लिये आवश्यक कदम उठाये जाने चाहिये। उत्पादन प्रबन्धक को सामान्यतः मासिक उत्पादन लागत विवरण, मासिक मशीन उपयोग विवरण, ऊपरी लागत विवरणं, मासिक उत्पादन विवरण दिये जाते हैं।

II. बाह्य प्रतिवेदन (External reports) - व्यवसाय के बाहरी व्यक्तियों (ऋणदाताओं) की जानकारी हेतु तैयार किये जाने वाले प्रतिवेदनों को बाह्य प्रतिवेदन कहते हैं। ये प्रतिवेदन अत्यन्त संक्षिप्त होते हैं, किन्तु महत्वपूर्ण सूचनाएँ प्रदान करने वाले होते हैं। इसमें निम्न प्रतिवेदन शामिल किये जाते हैं-

प्रथम अंशधारियों को दिये जाने वाले प्रतिवेदन (लाभालाभ लेखा, स्थितिविवरण आदि)। दूसरे स्कन्ध विपणि (Stock Exchange) को दिये जाने वाले प्रतिवेदन। तीसरा कर से सम्बन्धित प्रतिवेदन; जैसे- बिक्रीकर रिटर्न, आयकर रिटर्न, ड्यूटी कर रिटर्न आदि एवं अन्तिम बैंक एवं लेनदारों को दिये जाने वाले प्रतिवेदन।

(स) तथ्यों के आधार पर प्रतिवेदन (Reports on the basis of facts)

इसके अन्तर्गत निम्न प्रतिवेदन आते हैं-

1. परिचालन प्रतिवेदन (Operating reports)- इन प्रतिवेदनों का मुख्य उद्देश्य व्यवसाय संचालन से सम्बन्धित उन तथ्यों तथा सूचनाओं को प्रबन्धकों के समक्ष प्रस्तुत करना होता है, जो कि व्यावसायिक नियोजन तथा नीतियों पर महत्वपूर्ण प्रभाव डालते हैं। ये प्रतिवेदन गहन जाँच के ही पश्चात् तैयार किये जाते हैं। इनकी तैयारी में अधिक श्रम व व्यय लगता है तथा विश्लेषणों की निपुणता की आवश्यकता होती है।

2. वित्तीय प्रतिवेदन (Financial reports)- ये प्रतिवेदन व्यवसाय की वित्तीय स्थिति से सम्बन्धित होते हैं। वित्तीय प्रतिवेदनों से यह स्पष्ट होता है कि प्रबन्धकों ने अंशधारियों के प्रति किस सीमा तक अपने दायित्वों को निभाया है। वित्तीय तथा परिचालन प्रतिवेदन अलग होते हुए भी एक-दूसरे से सम्बन्धित होते हैं। वित्तीय प्रतिवेदन व्यवसाय की वित्तीय स्थिति को प्रदर्शित करते हैं, जबकि परिचालन प्रतिवेदन व्यवसाय की आय पर प्रकाश डालता है। वित्तीय प्रतिवेदन दो प्रकार के होते हैं-प्रथम; स्थिर वित्तीय प्रतिवेदन तथा दूसरा, गतिशील वित्तीय प्रतिवेदन।

(द) क्रियाशीलता के आधार पर प्रतिवेदन (Reports on the basis of activity)

क्रियाशीलता प्रतिवेदन के दो प्रकार हैं-

1. व्यक्तिगत क्रियाशीलता प्रतिवेदन (Personal activity report) - ये प्रतिवेदन किसी खास उत्तरदायी अधिकारी के निर्देशन में किये जाने वाली क्रियाओं तक ही सीमित होते हैं। उदाहरण के लिये, मान लिया जाए कि सम्पूर्ण बिक्री क्षेत्र को दो भागों में विभाजित किया गया है तथा दोनों भागों के लिये क्रमशः A तथा B अधिकारियों को नियुक्त किया गया है। A के क्षेत्र से सम्बन्धित प्रतिवेदन को व्यक्तिगत क्रियाशीलता प्रतिवेदन कहेंगे तथा इसी प्रकार B के क्षेत्र के लिये।

2. संयुक्त क्रियाशीलता प्रतिवेदन (Joint activity report) - ये प्रतिवेदन सामूहिक उत्तरदायी अधिकारियों की क्रियाओं से सम्बन्धित होते हैं। उदाहरणार्थ, A तथा B के क्षेत्र में बिक्री की जाने वाली वस्तु के कारखाना,, कार्यालय व वितरण लागत या लाभ-हानि का विश्लेषण करने वाला प्रतिवेदन तैयार किया जाये तो इस प्रतिवेदन को संयुक्त क्रियाशीलता प्रतिवेदन कहेंगे

Class : B.com 1 year( CA)
Subject : Business Mathematics
Faculty's name: Dr. Asmita Jain
Topic : Compound interest

sum of money amounts to Rs.14680 in 3 years @5.5 % p.a. compound interest
Given:
• Amount (A) = ₹14,680
• Rate of interest (r) = 5.5% p.a. = 0.055
• Time (n) = 3 years
• Interest = Compound Interest (compounded annually)
Formula:
Principal = AL [ log Amount - n (log 1 + i)]
P = Al [log 14680 - 3 (log 1.055)
P= Al [4.1668 - 3 × 0.0212]
P= Al 3.1761
P= 1500

Class : B.Com 2 year
Subject : Business statistics
Faculty's name: Dr. Asmita Jain
Topic : Index number

Tests of Adequacy of Index Numbers
Index numbers are used to measure changes in prices, quantities, or values over time. To be adequate (reliable and acceptable), an index number should satisfy certain tests of adequacy. These tests check whether the index number formula is logically consistent and accurate.

1. Unit Test (Test of Dimensional Consistency)

Meaning:
An index number should be independent of the units of measurement (kg, quintal, meter, etc.).
Explanation:
If units of quantity are changed, the value of the index number should not change.

Conclusion:
• If an index satisfies this test → it is adequate.
• Price index numbers generally satisfy this test.

. Time Reversal Test
Meaning:
If the time periods are reversed, the product of the two index numbers should be 1.
Formula:
P01×P10 = 1
Where:
• P01​ = index from base year (0) to current year (1)
• P10​ = index from current year (1) to base year (0)

Class : B.Com 1 year (Plain)
Subject : Fincnicial Accounting
Faculty's name : Dr. Asmita Jain
Topic : Cum interest and ex interest purchase and sale

1. Meaning of Interest on Debentures
• Interest on debentures is calculated on the face value of debentures.
• It is usually paid half-yearly or annually.
• When debentures are bought or sold between two interest dates, the buyer pays the seller the interest for the period already elapsed.
2. Cum-Interest Purchase / Sale
Meaning
• Cum-interest means price includes interest.
• The quoted price of debentures includes:
• Capital value of debentures
• Accrued interest up to the date of purchase/sale
👉 "Cum" means "including"
Calculation of Interest
Interest=Face Value×Rate×Period/12
Treatment in Books
• Total amount paid/received includes interest
• Interest portion is separated
• Capital portion is taken as cost of investment
Example (Cum-Interest)
A purchased ₹10,000, 12% debentures on 1 July at ₹10,600 cum-interest.
Interest is payable on 31 December.
Interest for 6 months:
10,000×12%×6/ 12 = ₹600
Cost of Investment:
10,600−600=₹10,000

3. Ex-Interest Purchase / Sale
Meaning
• Ex-interest means price excludes interest
• Interest is paid separately by buyer to seller
👉 "Ex" means "excluding"
Treatment in Books
• Quoted price = only capital value
• Interest is calculated separately
• Interest is transferred to Interest Account
Example (Ex-Interest)
A purchased ₹10,000, 12% debentures at ₹10,000 ex-interest on 1 July.
Interest for 6 months:
10,000×12%×6/ 12= ₹600
Total Payment:
10,000+600=₹10,600

4. Sale of Debentures (Cum & Ex)
Cum-Interest Sale
• Sale price includes interest
• Interest part is credited to Interest Account
• Remaining amount is sale value of investment
Ex-Interest Sale
• Sale price excludes interest
• Interest is received separately
• Interest credited to Interest Account

Organizational Change

More and more organizations today face a dynamic and changing environment, which in turn requires organization to make changes so as to adapt itself to these changes.

It is expected from management to manage change systematically and effectively.

An organization must develop adaptability tochange, otherwise it will either be left behind or be swept away by the force of changes.

An organization is an open system which implies that there is a constant interactional and interdependence relationship with its environ-ment. Any change in its environment, such as changes in consumer's tastes and preferences, competition, economic policies of the gover-nment etc. further refers to organizational change.

It can be said that 'change is a natural state and managing change is a continual process'.

Definitions

1. "Change means making things different. Planned change involves activities that are intentional and goal oriented."

- Robbins

2. "Organizational change involves moving from the known to the unknown, from relative certainty to relative uncertainty, from the familiar to the unfamiliar."

- Cohen, Fink, Gadon and Wilits

3. "Change can involve one or several components of an organizational system, or a realignment of the entire system, affecting all key sub-systems such as strategy, work, people, formal and informal processes and structures."

- Nadler and Tushman

Characteristics of Change

It has the following characteristics:

(i) Change results from the pressure of forces which are both outside and inside the organization. It disturbs the existing equili-brium in the organization.

(ii) The whole organization tends to be affected by a change in any part of it.

(iii) Change is a process and not an event.

(iv) Change is normal and constant.

V) Change is interdependent on organizational environment or culture.

vi) Change takes place in all parts or departments of the organization, but the degree of significance and speed of rates may vary from time to time.

vii) Change may affect people, work, structure, technology, policies, environment and other elements of the organization.

viii) Change may be reactive or proactive.

Internet and e-mail:

Internet is an international computer network that links computers from sectors such as government agencies, business houses, educational institutions and individuals. It receives information, stores it and allows it to be read on satisfying certain conditions.

Internet Service Providers (ISPs) allow one to create the e-mail ID free, hoping to recover the cost through the ads to which the user is exposed during the use of email. A typical email address reads abedef@xyz.com. Some other ISPs are bsnl, yahoo, hotmail, and Gmail.

Note the use of only lower case (small) alphabets email in IDs.

Every time the user wants to send messages or check the incoming mail, he can reach his ID by typing a password which makes the mail account private. However, once you have submitted to the mechanism of email you do not know who might read this "private" information far away. As such email does not guarantee 100% secrecy.

Advantages:

(a) Email is by far the cheapest and fastest means of sending printed information (verbal as well as non-verbal). At one click of the button, hundreds of pages of information can be sent to hundreds of email addresses worldwide (to be noted by receivers upon checking the incoming mail or inbox).

(b) No paper is required. Messages can be created directly on the computer, and added on from different computer files, CDs, floppies, etc.

(c) This facility is now available in many regional languages of India.

(d) It is informal and allows the sender to remain anonymous (since he can use any name as his email ID. For instance J.K. Singh can use udankhatola as his email name).

(e) Organizations and publishing houses take cognizance of messages coming via email. Newspapers and magazines print letters that come via email.

(f) As long as you carry your password with you, you can open your email account o any computer in the world which has this facility. You remain unencumbered eve with a mobile handset. You can just enter an internet cafe, pay the rent and us the email. Email is extraordinarily portable.

(g) You can have an address book in your email account, record the incoming mai and edit them and so on.

(h) When you reply to an email message, the sender's message is automatically se back to him for ready reference.

(i) As human need and imagination guide, more innovations are possible.

(6) Email can enable an ongoing electronic conference. People across the world can "meet" on internet and confer on a topic of common interest.

(k) The receiver need not respond at once as on the telephone but can take his time. Emailing helps to avoid a direct interface.

(1) In an organisation, a subordinate may quickly and directly reach a superior on email. Email makes an organisation more democratic (as individuals have more chance of being heard by the proper person even if he is several levels higher).

Disadvantage:

(i) Email, because of the potential anonymity, remains an informal channel of communication.

(ii) Excess use and flooding of unwanted messages (especially from advertisers) is a major drawback of this system. Unless one takes care to block unwanted ads, one finds one's inbox full of offers which maybe doubtful and insincere. Wading through chunks of email is one of the biggest problems for those who depend on email for their communication needs.

(iii) One may not be private while using the computer for emailing. To that extent the secrecy is lost.

(iv) In case the receiver is unable to open his email account as soon as a message is received, the message cannot work for him.

Subject- Indian economics 

Subject Type- Open Elective 

Compiled by- Asst Professor Priti Upadhyay 

The evolving landscape of Indian business environment. The Indian business environment has undergone a significant transformation in recent decades, driven by a confluence of factors including economic reforms, rapid technological advancements, globalization, evolving social dynamics, government policies, infrastructure development, and growing emphasis on sustainability.

Economic environment - Liberalization, Privatization & Globalization (LPG) reforms of the early 1990's, which reduced trade barriers and increased foreign investment. Technological environment - Digital transformation is widespread impacting business operation, communication, and customer engagement leading to growth in e-commerce, fintech, and digital services.

Social & cultural environment - Changing consumer preferences influenced by demographics, urbanization, and higher incomes are creating demand for customized and sustainable products.

Government and political environment - The government pro-business reforms and initiatives like "make in India" and "startup India" to create a favorable business climate and boost manufacturing.

Class - BBA ll nd yr.

Subject - Business Organization & Communication

Subject type - Minor ll

By AP N Jaiswal

Reference letter

a formal document written by someone familiar with an individual (like a former boss, professor, or colleague) to vouch for their character, skills, and performance for a potential employer or institution, detailing their work history, achievements, and suitability for a new role, usually in 3-5 paragraphs.

Key Components

* Introduction

* Body Paragraphs

* Conclusion

* Professional Format

Dunning letter

A dunning letter is a formal notice sent to a customer about an overdue invoice, serving as a persistent reminder to pay, escalating in urgency if ignored, and detailing consequences like fees or service interruption, all part of a structured debt collection process to maintain cash flow.

Key Components

* Clear Identification

* Payment Details

* Call to Action

* Escalation Clause

* Contact Information

Sales letter

a piece of direct mail which is designed to persuade the reader to purchase a particular product or service in the absence of a salesman or saleswoman.

Key Components

• Compelling Headline
• Introduction
• Features & Benefits
• Proof/Credibility
• Overcoming Objections
• Strong Call to Action (CTA)
• Urgency/Incentive